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Review Article
Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy for Uterine Cervical Cancer to Reduce Toxicity and Enhance Efficacy – an Option or a Must?: A Narrative Review
Sea-Won Lee, Aeran Kim, Sung Jong Lee, Sung Hwan Kim, Jong Hoon Lee
Cancer Res Treat. 2024;56(1):1-17.   Published online August 30, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4143/crt.2023.562
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Radiotherapy (RT) is a fundamental modality in treatment of cervical cancer. With advancement of technology, conventional RT used for external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) for over half a century has been rapidly replaced with intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) especially during the last decade. This newer technique is able to differentiate the intensity of radiation within the same field, thus reduces the inevitable exposure of radiation to normal organs and enables better dose delivery to tumors. Recently, the American Society for Radiation Oncology has released a guideline for RT in cervical cancer. Although a section of the guideline recommends IMRT for the purpose of toxicity reduction, a thorough review of the literature is necessary to understand the current status of IMRT in cervical cancer. This narrative review updates the recent high-level evidences regarding the efficacy and toxicity of IMRT and provides a better understanding of the most innovative techniques currently available for EBRT enabled by IMRT.

Citations

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  • Can knowledge-based planning models validated on ethnically diverse patients lead to global standardisation of external beam radiation therapy for locally advanced cervix cancer?
    Jeevanshu Jain, Monica Serban, Marianne Sanggaard Assenholt, Varsha Hande, Jamema Swamidas, Yvette Seppenwoolde, Joanne Alfieri, Kari Tanderup, Supriya Chopra
    Radiotherapy and Oncology.2025; 204: 110694.     CrossRef
  • Long term clinical outcomes of cervical cancer patients who were recommended surgery but did not undergo it: A SEER database study
    Zhaoming Zhang, Hongfu Zhao, Guanghui Cheng
    European Journal of Surgical Oncology.2024; 50(10): 108572.     CrossRef
  • Treatment of secondary uterine malignancy following radiotherapy for cervical cancer: a study based on the SEER database
    Xiaojing Tong, Yunyun Xiao, Haozhen Li, Hang Zhang, Jiawen Li
    BMC Women's Health.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • 4,947 View
  • 333 Download
  • 3 Web of Science
  • 3 Crossref
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Original Articles
Head and Neck cancer
Long-term Survivals, Toxicities and the Role of Chemotherapy in Early-Stage Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Patients Treated with Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy: A Retrospective Study with 15-Year Follow-up
Lin Wang, Jingjing Miao, Huageng Huang, Boyu Chen, Xiao Xiao, Manyi Zhu, Yingshan Liang, Weiwei Xiao, Shaomin Huang, Yinglin Peng, Xiaowu Deng, Xing Lv, Weixiong Xia, Yanqun Xiang, Xiang Guo, Fei Han, Chong Zhao
Cancer Res Treat. 2022;54(1):118-129.   Published online June 7, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4143/crt.2021.101
AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReaderePub
Purpose
This study was aimed to investigate long-term survivals and toxicities of early-stage nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) in endemic area, evaluating the role of chemotherapy in stage II patients.
Materials and Methods
Totally 187 patients with newly diagnosed NPC and restaged American Joint Committee on Cancer/ International Union Against Cancer 8th T1-2N0-1M0 were retrospectively recruited. All received intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT)±chemotherapy (CT) from 2001 to 2010.
Results
With 15.7-year median follow-up, 10-year locoregional recurrence-free survival, distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS), disease-specific survival (DSS), and overall survival (OS) were 93.3%, 93.5%, 92.9% and 88.2%, respectively. Multivariable analyses showed cervical lymph nodes positive and pre-treatment prognostic nutritional index ≥ 52.0 could independently predict DMFS (p=0.036 and p=0.011), DSS (p=0.014 and p=0.026), and OS (p=0.002 and p < 0.001); Charlson comorbidity index < 3 points could predict DSS (p=0.011); age > 45 years (p=0.002) and pre-treatment lactate dehydrogenase ≥ 240 U/L (p < 0.001) predicted OS. No grade 4 late toxicity happened; grade 3 late toxicities included subcutaneous fibrosis (4.3%), deafness or otitis (4.8%), skin dystrophy (2.1%), and xerostomia (1.1%). No differences on survivals were shown between IMRT+CT vs. IMRT alone in stage II patients, even in T2N1M0 (p > 0.05). Unsurprising, patients in IMRT+CT had more acute gastrointestinal reaction, myelosuppression, mucositis, late ear toxicity, and cranial nerve injury (all p < 0.05) than IMRT alone group.
Conclusion
Superior tumor control and satisfying long-term outcomes could be achieved with IMRT in early-stage NPC with mild late toxicities. As CT would bring more toxicities, it should be carefully performed to stage II patients.

Citations

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  • Retrospective analysis of 1539 nasopharyngeal carcinoma cases: chemotherapy should not be excluded for non-Asian patients with T1-2N1M0 stage
    Xin-Yu Li, Chang-Ying Zhong, Hui-Xian Xu
    Frontiers in Oncology.2025;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Genistein and chlorin E6-loaded versatile nanoformulation for remodeling the hypoxia-related tumor microenvironment and boosting photodynamic therapy in nasopharyngeal carcinoma treatment
    Qiang Zhou, Quazi T. H. Shubhra, Peng Lai, Jiayi Shi, Chenhao Fang, Qian Guo, Wanqing Li, Rui Chen, Xinkun Shen, Lina Huang, Xiaojun Cai, Sen Lin
    Advanced Composites and Hybrid Materials.2025;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Vaccine-Based Immunotherapy for Oropharyngeal and Nasopharyngeal Cancers
    Daria Maria Filippini, Elisabetta Broseghini, Carlotta Liberale, Giulia Gallerani, Giambattista Siepe, Elisabetta Nobili, Manuela Ferracin, Gabriele Molteni
    Journal of Clinical Medicine.2025; 14(4): 1170.     CrossRef
  • Radiation oncology for the rhinologist
    Helena Levyn, Fan Yang, Nancy Y. Lee
    Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head & Neck Surgery.2024; 32(1): 5.     CrossRef
  • Examining patient-reported late toxicity and its association with quality of life and unmet need for symptom management among nasopharyngeal cancer survivors: a cross-sectional survey
    Victor C. W. Tam, Jerry C. F. Ching, Sindy S. T. Yip, Virginia H. Y. Kwong, Catherine P. L. Chan, Kenneth C. W. Wong, Shara W. Y. Lee
    Frontiers in Oncology.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Multifactorial clinical analysis of factors affecting necrosis of nasal septal mucosal flap after salvage surgery for recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma
    Qilin Gong, Huaying Li, Hui Liu, Youyuan Shi
    Scientific Reports.2024;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Long noncoding RNA LINC00173 induces radioresistance in nasopharyngeal carcinoma via inhibiting CHK2/P53 pathway
    Jingjing Miao, Boyu Chen, Yunyun Xiao, Runda Huang, Xiao Xiao, Shunzhen Lu, Lu Zhang, Xuguang Wang, Ying Ouyang, Xiangfu Chen, Qiuyan Chen, Yanqun Xiang, Xiang Guo, Xiaowu Deng, Lin Wang, Haiqiang Mai, Chong Zhao
    Cancer Gene Therapy.2023; 30(9): 1249.     CrossRef
  • Therapeutic hyperthermia regulates complement C3 activation and suppresses tumor development through HSPA5/NFκB/CD55 pathway in nasopharyngeal carcinoma
    Chengcong Chen, Anbang Ren, Qi Yi, Jiazuo Cai, Muhammad Khan, Yunen Lin, Zhong Huang, Jie Lin, Jian Zhang, Wei Liu, Anan Xu, Yunhong Tian, YaWei Yuan, Ronghui Zheng
    Clinical and Experimental Immunology.2023; 213(2): 221.     CrossRef
  • Immunotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma: Current status and prospects (Review)
    Huageng Huang, Yuyi Yao, Xinyi Deng, Zongyao Huang, Yungchang Chen, Zhao Wang, Huangming Hong, He Huang, Tongyu Lin
    International Journal of Oncology.2023;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Quality of life and swallowing outcomes after early proactive swallowing rehabilitation by either transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation or exercise‐based swallowing training in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma after radiotherapy
    Peter K. M. Ku, Alexander C. Vlantis, Rita W. M. Wong, Thomas S. C. Hui, Thomas Law, Louisa K. Y. Ng, Eddy W. Y. Wong, W. T. Chang, David R. Johnson, Florence S. T. Mok, K. H. Wong, Victor Abdullah, Andrew van Hasselt, Kathy Y. S. Lee, Michael C. F. Tong
    Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology.2023; 8(6): 1532.     CrossRef
  • Prognostic nutritional index and serum lactate dehydrogenase predict the prognosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients who received intensity-modulated radiation therapy
    Chunxia Zhang, Zhouwei Zhan, Yunxiang Fang, Yuanyuan Ruan, Mingan Lin, Zhisen Dai, Yanping Zhang, Shanshan Yang, Shuxiang Xiao, Bijuan Chen
    Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology.2023; 149(20): 17795.     CrossRef
  • A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Studies Comparing Concurrent Chemoradiotherapy With Radiotherapy Alone in the Treatment of Stage II Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
    Yao-Can Xu, Kai-Hua Chen, Zhong-Guo Liang, Xiao-Dong Zhu
    Frontiers in Oncology.2022;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Minimally Invasive Surgery for Early-Stage Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
    Jinping Liu, Zesheng Zeng, Dingting Wang, Gang Qin
    Journal of Craniofacial Surgery.2022; 33(8): e834.     CrossRef
  • External Validation of a Nomogram to Predict Survival and Benefit of Concurrent Chemoradiation for Stage II Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
    Pui-Lam Yip, Shing-Fung Lee, Cheuk-Wai Horace Choi, Po-Chung Sunny Chan, Ka-Wai Alice Cheung, Chung-Hang James Chow, Ka-Man Cheung, Wing-Yu Jessica Lai, Ho-Fun Victor Lee, Ka-On Lam, Chi-Leung Chiang, Chun-Yin Edwin Wong, Ming-Chun Darren Poon, Macy Tong,
    Cancers.2021; 13(17): 4286.     CrossRef
  • 7,385 View
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  • 15 Web of Science
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Re-irradiation with Moderate Hypo-fractionation Using Intensity Modulated Photon or Proton Radiation Therapy in Locally Recurrent Squamous Cell Carcinoma of Nasopharynx
Heerim Nam, Yong Chan Ahn, Kyungmi Yang, Dongryul Oh, Jae Myoung Noh
Cancer Res Treat. 2022;54(1):96-108.   Published online March 26, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4143/crt.2020.1349
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Purpose
This study aimed to analyze the treatment outcomes of locally recurrent nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) patients following moderate hypo-fractionation re-irradiation (re-RT).
Materials and Methods
Sixty locally recurrent NPC patients underwent hypo-fractionation re-RT. Forty-eight point three percentage had rT3-4, and 30.0% did keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), with or without intensity-modulated proton therapy (IMPT), was used in 66.7% of patients.
Results
With the median follow-up of 22 months (range, 2 to 254 months), 31 patients (51.7%) died, 38 (63.3%) developed further treatment failure, and 30 (50.0%) developed ≥ grade 3 toxicity (including seven grade 5) at time of analysis. The 2- and 5-year rates of overall survival, local failure-free survival, and ≥ grade 3 toxicity-free survival were 57.9% and 45.8%, 64.1% and 52.5%, and 54.8% and 44.9%, respectively. In multivariate analyses, worse factors for overall survival (OS) were iT3-4 (p=0.010) and age at re-RT ≥ 53 years (p=0.003), those for local failure-free survival (LFFS) were rT3-4 (p=0.022) and rN0-1 (p=0.035), and those for toxicity-free survival (TFS) were iT3-4 (p=0.020) and re-IMRT/IMPT (p=0.030), respectively. Cumulative dose or fraction size ≥ 3 Gy at re-RT, however, showed no significance for OS, LFFS and TFS.
Conclusion
Current re-RT with modern RT techniques by moderate hypo-fractionation scheme seemed feasible in treating locally recurrent NPC patients.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Case Report: Unresectable recurrent nasopharyngeal cancer treated with immuno oncology
    Fabiano Flauto, Rosa Maria Di Crescenzo, Vincenzo Damiano
    Frontiers in Oncology.2025;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Radiation oncology for the rhinologist
    Helena Levyn, Fan Yang, Nancy Y. Lee
    Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head & Neck Surgery.2024; 32(1): 5.     CrossRef
  • Identifying the prognostic value of MRI-based tumor response and predicting the risk of radio-resistance in re-radiotherapy for locally recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma
    Zi-Jian Lu, Ting Liu, Jie-Yi Lin, Sheng-Ting Pei, Ling Guo, Sai-Lan Liu, Hai-Qiang Mai
    Radiotherapy and Oncology.2023; 183: 109635.     CrossRef
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    Lei Gao, Anqi Zhang
    Translational Oncology.2023; 35: 101710.     CrossRef
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    Alexandre Santos, Scott Penfold, Peter Gorayski, Hien Le
    Cancers.2022; 14(9): 2271.     CrossRef
  • Toxicity Profiles and Survival Outcomes Among Patients With Nonmetastatic Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Treated With Intensity-Modulated Proton Therapy vs Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy
    Xingzhe Li, Sarin Kitpanit, Anna Lee, Dennis Mah, Kevin Sine, Eric J. Sherman, Lara A. Dunn, Loren S. Michel, James Fetten, Kaveh Zakeri, Yao Yu, Linda Chen, Jung Julie Kang, Daphna Y. Gelblum, Sean M. McBride, Chiaojung J. Tsai, Nadeem Riaz, Nancy Y. Lee
    JAMA Network Open.2021; 4(6): e2113205.     CrossRef
  • 6,794 View
  • 200 Download
  • 6 Web of Science
  • 6 Crossref
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Risk Assessment of Secondary Primary Malignancies in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: A Big-Data Intelligence Platform-Based Analysis of 6,377 Long-term Survivors from an Endemic Area Treated with Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy during 2003-2013
Lu-Lu Zhang, Guo-Hong Li, Yi-Yang Li, Zhen-Yu Qi, Ai-Hua Lin, Ying Sun
Cancer Res Treat. 2019;51(3):982-991.   Published online October 11, 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4143/crt.2018.298
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Purpose
The incidence, risk factors and survival impact of secondary primary malignancies (SPMs) among survivors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) treated with definitive intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) with or without chemotherapy are poorly characterized.
Methods
and Materials Consecutive patients (n=6,377) from the big-data intelligence platform at Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, China (in a high-incidence area) with newly diagnosed non-metastatic pathologically proven non-keratinizing undifferentiated NPC treated with IMRT±chemotherapy between January 2003 and June 2013 were retrospectively analyzed. Cumulative incidence of SPMs was calculated using the Kaplan-Meier method. Cox proportional hazards model was used to identify potential risk factors for SPMs and assess whether SPMs affect overall survival.
Results
Of the 6,377 patients, 189 (3.0%) suffered SPMs (median follow-up, 62 months). One-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-cumulative risks of SPMs were 0.4%, 0.9%, 1.6%, 2.2%, and 2.6%, respectively. Latency from start of IMRT to SPMs diagnosis was 37 months (range, 6 to 102 months). In patients with SPMs, 14.3% suffered SPMs within 1 year post-IMRT: 1-3 years, 38.1%; 3-5 years, 33.9%; and >5 years, 13.7%. Lung cancer was the most common SPM (50/6,377, 0.78%). Multivariate analysis demonstrated sex (male, 64% increase), age (≥50 years, 68% increase), and smoking history (41% increase) were significant risk factors for SPMs, and SPMs were associated with poorer overall survival.
Conclusion
This large cohort study confirms SPMs a dreadful complication for long-term survivors of NPC treated with IMRT. SPMs negatively impact overall survival in NPC. Close follow-up is recommended for older male survivors with a smoking history.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Long-term results of locoregionally advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil induction chemotherapy with or without docetaxel in young and middle aged adults
    Yuming Zheng, Fen Xue, Dan Ou, Xiaoshuang Niu, Chaosu Hu, Xiayun He
    Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology.2025;[Epub]     CrossRef
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  • 150 Download
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  • 12 Crossref
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Proposal of a Pretreatment Nomogram for Predicting Local Recurrence after Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy in T4 Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: A Retrospective Review of 415 Chinese Patients
Lu-Lu Zhang, Yi-Yang Li, Jiang Hu, Guan-Qun Zhou, Lei Chen, Wen-Fei Li, Ai-Hua Lin, Jun Ma, Zhen-Yu Qi, Ying Sun
Cancer Res Treat. 2018;50(4):1084-1095.   Published online November 15, 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4143/crt.2017.359
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReaderePub
Purpose
Local relapse-free survival (LRFS) differs widely among patients with T4 category nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). We aimed to build a nomogram incorporating clinicopathological information to predict LRFS in T4 NPC after definitive intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT).
Materials and Methods
Retrospective study of 415 Chinese patients with non-metastatic T4 NPC treated with definitive IMRT with or without chemotherapy at our cancer center between October 2009 and September 2013. The nomogram for LRFS at 3 and 5 years was generated based on multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression, and validated using bootstrap resampling, assessing discriminative performance using the concordance index (C-index) and determining calibration ability via calibration curves.
Results
Five-year LRFS was 88.8%. We identified and incorporated four independent prognostic factors for LRFS: ethmoid sinus invasion, primary gross tumor volume, age, and pretreatment body mass index. The C-index of the nomogram for local recurrence was 0.732 (95% confidence interval, 0.726 to 0.738), indicating excellent predictive accuracy. The calibration curve revealed excellent agreement between nomogram-predicted and observed LRFS probabilities. Risk subgroups based on total point score cutoff values enabled effective discrimination of LRFS.
Conclusion
This pretreatment nomogram enables clinicians to accurately predict LRFS in T4 NPC after definitive IMRT, and could help to facilitate personalized patient counselling and treatment strategies.

Citations

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    Xin Zhou, Xiayun He, Fen Xue, Xiaomin Ou, Chaosu Hu
    Frontiers in Oncology.2020;[Epub]     CrossRef
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    Nicola Alessandro Iacovelli, Alessandro Cicchetti, Anna Cavallo, Salvatore Alfieri, Laura Locati, Eliana Ivaldi, Rossana Ingargiola, Domenico A. Romanello, Paolo Bossi, Stefano Cavalieri, Chiara Tenconi, Silvia Meroni, Giuseppina Calareso, Marco Guzzo, Ce
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    JAMA Network Open.2020; 3(12): e2029882.     CrossRef
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    En-Hong Zhuo, Wei-Jing Zhang, Hao-Jiang Li, Guo-Yi Zhang, Bing-Zhong Jing, Jian Zhou, Chun-Yan Cui, Ming-Yuan Chen, Ying Sun, Li-Zhi Liu, Hong-Min Cai
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  • Impact of paranasal sinus invasion on advanced nasopharyngeal carcinoma treated with intensity‐modulated radiation therapy: the validity of advanced T stage of AJCC/UICC eighth edition staging system
    Ying Wang, Jie Zhao, Yajie Zhao, Zhen Yang, Mingjun Lei, Zhanzhan Li, Rui Wei, Dengming Chen, Yuxiang He, Liangfang Shen
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