Purpose
Chronic stress and related hormones are key in cancer progression. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and its agonists was reported that inducing anti-tumor effect. However, the function of PPARγ in pro-tumorigenic effects induced by chronic stress in breast cancer remains unknown. Herein, we have characterized a novel role of PPARγ and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)/fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) signals in breast cancer promoted by chronic stress.
Materials and Methods
We performed experiments in vivo and in vitro and used bioinformatics data to evaluate the therapeutic potential of PPARγ in breast cancer promoted by stress.
Results
Chronic stress significantly inhibited the PPARγ expression and promoted breast cancer in vivo. VEGF/FGF2-mediated angiogenesis increased in the chronic stress group compared to the control group. PPARγ agonist pioglitazone (PioG) injection offset the pro-tumorigenic effect of chronic stress. Moreover, specific β2-adrenergic receptor (β2R) antagonist ICI11-8551 inhibited the effect of chronic stress. In vitro, norepinephrine (NE) treatment had a similar tendency to chronic stress. The effect of NE was mediated by the β2R/adenylate cyclase signaling pathway and suppressed by PioG. PPARγ suppressed VEGF/FGF2 through reactive oxygen species inhibition. Bioinformatics data confirmed that therewas a lowPPARγ expression in breast invasive carcinoma. Lower PPARγ was associated with a significantly worse survival.
Conclusion
β2R activation induced by chronic stress and related hormones promotes growth and VEGF/FGF2-mediated angiogenesis of breast cancer by down-regulating PPARγ. Our findings hint that β receptor and PPARγ as two target molecules and the novel role for their agonists or antagonists as clinical medicine in breast cancer therapy
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Purpose
Autophagy is one of the ways to degrade unfolded proteins after endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The purpose of this study is to determine whether a blockade of autophagy leads to aggravated endoplasmic reticulum stress, which then induces cells apoptosis in HeLa cells treated with paclitaxel.
Materials and Methods
Autophagy activation and the proapoptotic effects were characterized using monodansylcadaverine labeling and Hoechest staining, respectively. A Western blot analysis was used to detect the expression of apoptotic and autophagy-related genes. A flow cytometry was used to assess the cell apoptosis ratio.
Results
Paclitaxel exposure induced the aggregation of autophagosomes in the cytoplasms of cervical cancer HeLa cells. The expression of Beclin 1 and LC3 II were upregulated, but p62 was downregulated, which suggests that autophagy was promoted by paclitaxel. On the other hand, the expression of GRP78 obviously increased, suggesting that ER stress was induced after paclitaxel treatment. The cell proliferation assay indicated that a knockdown of Beclin 1 sensitized HeLa cells to paclitaxel. Furthermore, paclitaxel-mediated apoptotic cell death was further potentiated by the pretreatment with autophagy inhibitor chloroquine or small interfering RNA against Beclin 1. These results suggest that an induction of autophagy by paclitaxel may induce cell survival rather than cell death in HeLa cells; moreover, inhibition of autophagy led to an aggravated ER stress and an induction of downstream apoptosis.
Conclusion
Our results reveal autophagy induced by paclitaxel conferred protection of tumor cells against apoptosis, and blockade of autophagy subsequently aggravated ER stress, enhancing the apoptosis associated with paclitaxel treatment in HeLa cells.
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